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Nauka | 2026 | No 1

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Abstract

In the 1930s, as a result of philosophical reflection on the nature of scientific knowledge, logical empiricism and Popper's falsificationism emerged. Philosophers almost completely overlooked Ludwik Fleck's book Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache (1935), which fell into total oblivion after World War II. In 1949, Thomas S. Kuhn read it and was greatly impressed. In 1962, shortly after Fleck's death, he published The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, the most influential book in the philosophy of science of the 20th century. Using different terminology and illustrating his reflections with examples from the history of physics (while Fleck referred to the history of medicine), Kuhn outlined a picture of the nature of scientific knowledge and the mechanisms of its development strikingly similar to Fleck's. Although he mentioned Fleck's book in passing in the Preface, he never referred to its ideas in The Structure or in his subsequent works. Since the late 1970s, Fleck's book has begun to be translated into other languages and commented upon. It cannot be proven that Kuhn's philosophy of science is a plagiarism. However, it is worth celebrating that Fleck's philosophy and sociology of science are gradually gaining their rightful place in the marketplace of ideas, albeit with a decades-long delay.
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Authors and Affiliations

Wojciech Sady
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Instytut Filozofii, Uniwersytet Śląski
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Abstract

Among the three million Wehrmacht soldiers who invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 as part of Operation Barbarossa were Protestant and Catholic military chaplains. United by their Christian faith and hatred of 'Jewish communism', they played an important role in the ideological interpretation of the war. As well as their strictly religious duties, Wehrmacht chaplains played an important role in the ideological interpretation of the war. Who or what did they serve? Hitler, to whom they had sworn allegiance, or God and the Church, to whom they had also vowed fidelity? How did they deal with the inevitable conflict of conscience caused by the fact that they were Christian clergymen bound by the commandment to love their neighbour, yet participating in a murderous war that dramatically violated that commandment? The answer is not clear-cut. Historical research has revealed that several thousand clergymen belonged to the Nazi Party (NSDAP), although their exact number is unknown. They contributed to the legitimisation of Hitler's regime, justifying his genocidal wars and the ideology of the Third Reich. There is no evidence to suggest that they recognised the theological contradiction between their faith and the commandment to love one's neighbour, and their hatred of Jews. However, there is also no evidence that they personally killed Jews or Soviet prisoners of war. They also belonged to groups persecuted by Nazism. At Dachau concentration camp, for example, approximately 2,800 Catholic clergymen were imprisoned from 1940 until the end of the war. The largest group, numbering around 1,800, was made up of Polish priests, followed by a much smaller group of clergymen from Germany and Austria. A full evaluation of the attitudes and behaviour of Wehrmacht chaplains must consider the wider context of the relationship between German Christian churches and Nazism.
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Authors and Affiliations

Andrzej Bronk
1

  1. Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II
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Abstract

The article presents a proposal for actions to restore the Polish Academy of Sciences (PAS) to its strong position in the science system and increase its social importance. We propose a reform understood primarily as a change in the way the Academy operates and in the scope of its influence, rather than merely a modification of its organization. The key solution is to direct the activities of the Polish Academy of Sciences towards society. We postulate a nationwide campaign to increase funding for science to 3% of GDP, develop professional communication and popularization mechanisms, and create structures for rapid response to crises and disinformation. The second package of solutions concerns the strengthening of the institutes of the Polish Academy of Sciences: systematic presentations of the institutes' achievements, internationalized quality audits, restructuring programs, and the creation of new institutes in strategic areas of science, as well as support for securing consortium grants and the expansion of legal, human resources, and infrastructure support. The third area is the active impact of the Polish Academy of Sciences on the scientific community, including initiating a debate, preparing a proposal for a coherent national scientific policy, strengthening internationalization, and developing innovation mechanisms from basic research to implementation. In the field of research reliability, we propose the creation of a nationwide institution for scientific integrity, the unification of ethical procedures across the institutes of the Polish Academy of Sciences, the introduction of ombudspersons, and the development of a non-profit open-access publishing platform.
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Authors and Affiliations

Adam Liebert
1
Romuald Zabielski
2

  1. Instytut Biocybernetyki i Inżynierii Biomedycznej im. M. Nałęcza PAN
  2. Centrum Medycyny Translacyjnej SGGW w Warszawie
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Abstract

The article presents a political biography of Professor Jan Kielanowski (1910– 1989) in the years 1969–1976. Kielanowski was an outstanding zootechnician and opposition political activist in autocratically ruled communist Poland. He was a rare example of a man who combined the qualities of a scientist, artist, political writer, and activist, as well as being a practicing Catholic and a Freemason. The article shows the Professor at the time when his underground (illegal) civic activity began. In 1975, Kielanowski became the co-author of Letter 59 – the basic program of the Polish anti-communist opposition. A program demanding the introduction of free elections to the Sejm (Parliament), the defence of rights and freedoms of conscience, religion, and science, and the abolition of censorship. In 1976, Kielanowski joined the Workers’ Defence Committee (KOR), which advocated for persecuted people and inspired the creation of an independent civil society. The author of the article is also interested in the Professor’s activities in the years 1969–1976 in defence of the autonomy and self-government of the Polish Academy of Sciences, and in the Academy’s reaction to the opposition activities undertaken by Kielanowski.
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Authors and Affiliations

Marek Kunicki-Goldfinger
1

  1. Instytutu Języka Polskiego PAN
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Abstract

This article consists of three parts. The first part discusses the origins of the concept of affective polarization (AP), which was i introduced into academia by a research team from Stanford University, led by Shanto Iyengar, a professor of political science and communication. The team studied the forty-year history of relations between the Republican and Democratic parties in the United States, finding growing antagonism between these parties and their political bases. Using innovative methodology, it showed that over the course of those 40 years, these relations had become increasingly negatively polarized, both between the parties and between the members and supporters of those parties. However, contrary to popular belief, an important feature of this polarization was not the contradiction of political and ideological views. Based on psychological theory of social identification (SIT), the authors argued that polarization was a consequence of a psychological mechanism defined by the theory as “in-group bias and outgroup discrimination”. The differences in political or ideological views itself did not have to be significant. It gained significance as an indicator of belonging to different, competing groups. Thus, the basis for polarization was the formation of partisan social identity. This intergroup antagonism was being intensified, by political campaigns saturated with negative and hostile content towards rivals. As AP intensifies, it is increasingly moving beyond the political sphere and encompassing ever wider segments of the society. The second part of the article presents the results of an extensive European research program concerning the level of AP in 32 European countries. The results of this research indicate, among other things, a link between the intensity of this phenomenon and the development of populist parties in a given country. The third part of the article concerns Poland. In Poland, the concept of AP is rarely encountered in the social sciences, but there are numerous publications that deal with similar or identical phenomena. Polish academic literature mentions three periods of polarization in Poland: the post-communist period, the post-Solidarity period, and the post- Smolensk period. An analysis of these periods reveals the mechanisms of development of advanced forms of affective polarization and its consequences for the political and social life of the country.
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Authors and Affiliations

Janusz Reykowski
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Instytut Psychologii PAN
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Abstract

This article examines artificial intelligence in the context of crucial ethical issues surrounding its applications. It discusses current global regulatory efforts in this area. It also highlights a significant portion of UNESCO's efforts to support scientific research.
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Authors and Affiliations

Michał Kleiber
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Instytut Podstawowych Problemów Techniki PAN, Warszawa
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Abstract

The use of artificial intelligence, and its generative form in particular, is gaining enormous importance in educational processes at all levels. In light of these ongoing changes, a profound reflection on the content and methods of education is now necessary. The often-articulated optimistic views on the increasingly widespread use of AI in education are not free from very serious criticism, pointing to the possible significant weaknesses of this process, which disrupts students' cognitive and critical thinking abilities, allowing them to bypass key activities necessary to develop knowledge and skills.
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Authors and Affiliations

Michał Kleiber
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Instytut Podstawowych Problemów Techniki PAN, Warszawa

Authors and Affiliations

Jan W. Wiktor
1

  1. Main Council of Science and Higher Education
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Abstract

This article discusses the issue of peer accreditation, identified in the draft Strategy for the Development of Higher Education in Poland until 2035 as one of the key challenges in addressing the inefficiencies of the Polish accreditation system. It explains why the strategy's authors' proposal to have peer committees meet European standards is unrealistic. It also identifies the activities that should be covered by these committees, complementing those of the Polish Accreditation Committee.
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Authors and Affiliations

Marek Rocki
1

  1. Instytut Rozwoju Gospodarczego, Szkoła Główna Handlowa
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Abstract

Professor Aleksander Kabsch, MD, PhD, passed away on 30th November 2025 aged 97. He was a co-creator of Poznań rehabilitation school, an outstanding orthopaedist and biomechanist, responsible for introducing studies in the field of physiotherapy. He initiated the efforts to develop sport for people with disabilities in Poland. In his life he held many important academic positions, including that of the first Rector of Poznań University School of Physical Education in the difficult years of martial law (1981–1985).
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Authors and Affiliations

Stanisław Kowalik
1

  1. Katedra Psychologii, Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Eugeniusza Piaseckiego w Poznaniu

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Literatura przedmiotu powinna być umieszczona na końcu pracy w układzie sekwencyjnym (odwołanie w tekście, np. [1]) lub alfabetycznym typu „autor-rok” (odwołanie w tekście, np. (Ziman J., 1978)).

Artykuł:

Watson J.D., Crick F.H.C., Molecular structure of nucleic acids. Nature 1953, nr 171,

s. 737–738.

Książka:

Ziman J., Reliable knowledge. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1978, s. 124–157.

Rozdział w książce:

Klemensiewicz Z., Przekład jako zagadnienie językoznawstwa, [w:] O sztuce tłumaczenia, pod redakcją M. Rusinka, Wrocław 1955, Zakład im. Ossolińskich, s. 85–97.

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