A significant part of hard coal production (15–19% in the years 2010–2017, i.e. 1.0–1.3 billion
tons per year) is traded on the international market. The majority of coal trade takes place by sea,
accounting for 91–94% of the total coal trade. The article discusses the share of coal in international
seaborne trade and the largest coal ports. Coal is one the five major bulk commodities (in addition
to iron ore, grain, bauxite, alumina, and phosphate rock). In the years 2010–2016, the share of coal
in international seaborne trade and major bulk commodities was 36–41% and 11–12%, respectively.
Based on the analysis of coal throughput in different ports worldwide, the ports with the
largest throughput include the ports of Qinhuangdao (China), Newcastle (Australia), and Richards
Bay (South Africa). For 2013–2017, their throughput amounted to a total of 411–476 million tons
of coal. The largest coal exporting countries were: Australia, Indonesia, Russia, Colombia, South
Africa, and the US (a total of 85% share in global coal exports), while the largest importers are
Asian countries: China, India, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan (a 64% share in global imports). In
Europe, Germany is the largest importer of coal (54 million tons imported in 2016). The article also
discusses the freight costs and the bulk carrier fleet. Taking the price of coal at the recipient’s (i.e.
at the importer’s port) into account, the share of freight costs in the CIF price of steam coal (the
price of a good delivered at the frontier of the importing country) was at the level of 10–14%. In
the years 2010–2016, the share of bulk carriers in the world fleet was in the range of 11–15%. In
terms of tonnage, bulk carriers accounted for 31–35% of the total tonnage of all types of ships in
the world. The share of new (1–4 years) bulk carriers in the total number of ships on a global scale
in the years 2010–2016 was 29–46%.
How does inflowing river water affect the quality of water in the Baltic Sea? Why are the chemicals used in agriculture so dangerous for seas, and what future lies in store for the Baltic?
Altogether 105 algal taxa were identified including 101 diatom species. Chaetoceros criophilus was dominant in the western part of the study area influenced by waters from the Bellingshausen Sea. Corethron criophilum was abundant in the Weddcll Sea water mass found to the east of 53.5°W meridian. Nitzschia cylindrus common in the ice-melt samples was dominant in only two net phytoplankton collections obtained at the ice-edge zone. Additional samples from Admiralty Bay, at King George Island revealed the dominance of Chaetoceros socialis and the presence of many tychoplankton species. Very few diatom cells were found in the open waters of the Bransfield Strait which combined with the presence of krill, suggested intensive grazing by herbivores. The unstable waters of the Weddell-Scotia Confluence area contained little phytoplankton except for a station dominated by Phaeocystis pouchetii. Greater cell densities were related to warm, lower salinity Weddell Sea water of summer modification found in the surface layer east from 49°W.
The Author tries to “think out of the box”, presenting “Sponsalia ex hoc mundo” (“Hand fastening out of this world”). The title reflects the view that the outer space sciences and the sea sciences are analytically separable, but practically interlinked. It might be observed in the context of space technology and satellite technics, a new system of management and government, as well as a new system of law and policy. Nowadays, the outer space infrastructure (the use of artificial Earth satellites for Direct Television Broadcasting, communications, remote sensing, navigation, military missiles) affects infrastructure of our Planet, including maritime infrastructure. There is, therefore, the need for a new face of integrated system of science and practice.
The highest concentrations of algal cells (1.1 x l0 6 litre- 1 ) and of algal carbon (20 μg litre -1 ) were associated with a lens of ice melt water in the northeast of the study area. Phytoflagellates were dominant at all stations with greater numbers always in the 0 - 20 m surface layer and with the peaks of Cryptophyceae in the open waters and also near the ice edge east of 50° W. Picoplankton flagellates and monads (1.5-5.0 μ) were generally next in abundance and most important numerically in the near ice stations in the western part of the study area. Parasinophyceae were usually more abundant than Nitzschia cylindrus (Grunow) Hasle, the only common diatom species found mainly in the western near ice edge stations. The presence olN.cylindrus, dominant in the pack ice and in phytoplankton near the ice edge, shows that algae released from ice may act as an inoculum for the phytoplankton.
The article presents a review of the researches on sea and atmospheric physics conducted by the Polish expeditions in Antarctica from 1977 to 1990.
Results of an oceanographic survey along the edge of drifting pack ice in the area between Elephant Island and the South Orkney Islands are reported. The influence of sea ice on hydrological factors was very weak. It was not possible to develop oceanographic features characteristic for marginal sea-ice zones in the areas with well marked surface currents and dynamic hydrological conditions. The spatial distribution of chlorophyll was governed by water stability, although during our survey, areas with enhanced vertical stability could not be described in terms of a sea-ice edge influence.
Bills of Lading are transferable documents of title and the transfer of document results in the transfer of the rights incorporated in it. Some of B/L are additionally negotiable. However the legal meaning of these two terms isn’t the same what is not respected in practice. Historically there is also a difference in legal grounds and scope of rights represented and transferred by negotiable bills of lading according to British, American and continental law. An important role in this differentiation was played by the doctrine of privity of contract. This ultimately affects the legal position and scope of the acquired rights of legitimate holders of bills of lading, which are considered to be “negotiable”, including the right to obtain claims from the carrier for cargo damage.
The Baltic is a unique brakish sea. Its moderate salinity is the result of the fresh river water input and non-periodic inflows of salty, oxygenated waters from the North Sea. However, the balance continually fluctuates. What impact does that have on the sea?
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